第十章、语言习得 language acquisition
1、language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.
2、telegraphic speech: The early multiword utterance of children have a special characteristic. They typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Because of their resemblance to the styly of language found in telegrams, utterance at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.
3、holophrastic sentence: Children’s one-word utterance are also called holophrastic sentences.
4、acquisition: According to Krashen,acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.
5、learning: Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.
6、language transfer: Learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer.
7、positive transfer: Presumably, positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern.
8、negative transfer: Conversely, negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.
9、contrastive analysis: The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language system, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make.
10、interlanguage: SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage.
11、formal instruction: Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.
12、instrumental motivation: Thus, instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional.
13、integrative motivation: Integrative motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social.
14、acculturation: A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the 12community. This adaptation process is called acculturation
15、Krashen是如何区分习得和学习的？
According to Stephen Krashen, language acquisition is contrasted with language learning on the assumption that these are different processes.
According to Krashen, acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations. Learning, however, is a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings. It is recognized that children acquire their native language without explicit learning. A second language, Krashen argues, is more commonly learned but to some degree may also be acquired, depending on the environmental setting and the input received by the L2 learner. A rule can be learned before it is internalized (i.e., acquired), but having learned a rule does not necessarily prevent having to acquire it later.
16、为什么说母语习得是语法规则的习得？
In principle, no human brain can store all the words and expressions of a language. What happens is that when processing the language they hear, children construct the grammar and make sense of the expressions according to the grammar. When producing utterances, they follow the internalized grammatical rules. Without the knowledge of the productive rules, it would be impossible for language users to produce and understand an unlimited number of sentences which they have never heard before.
17、在母语习得中，语言输入起什么样的作用？
For language to be eventually acquired, children must be provided with an appropriate linguistic environment in which they have access to language data and opportunities to interact with the input.
18、刻意的教学对母语习得有什么作用？
For the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously and requires little conscious instruction on the part of adults. In natural settings, parents rarely correct young children s utterances that violate the rules of the grammar, still less do they go about teaching explicitly the correct forms of the language, although some parents believe that they constantly instruct their children to speak grammatical sentences. Even if they do, there is no convincing evidence that children need such instruction. In fact, parents often fail in their attempt to teach children grammatical rules.
Of course, this is not to say that instruction is altogether useless in child language development from the stage of a babbler to that of a fluent speaker. A certain amount of conscious instruction on the part of parents and peers may have some effect on the language of a child. But the available evidence to date indicates that an explicit teaching of correct forms to young children plays a minor role at best.
19、模仿在母语习得中的作用是什么？
At one time, it was widely believed that children learned language by simply imitating the speech of those around them. We now know that this cannot be true, since many utterance types produced by children do not closely resemble structures found in adult speech. . If children learn their native tongue by imitating their parents, how can we account for the utterances that are typical of children' s language, such as the plural form "my foots," the past tense forms of " I eated," and the negative construction of “No the sun shining”? It is impossible that children imitate these structures from adults because they are never heard in adult conversations. In addition, Children with speech impairment for neurological or physiological reasons learn the language spoken to them and understand what is said. A more reasonable explanation is that children are attempting to construct and generalize their own grammatical rules.
Some young language learners do seem to make selective use of imitation, but they do not blindly mimic adult speech in a parrot fashion, but rather exploit it in very restricted ways to improve their linguistic skills. The point is that imitation plays at best a very minor role in the child' s mastery of language.
20、在儿童母语习得过程中，纠错起什么样的作用？
It was once assumed that children received constant correction for using a "bad" grammar and rewards when using a "good" grammar. It was also assumed that children learned to produce correct sentences because they were positively reinforced when they said something right and negatively reinforced when they said something wrong. According to Behaviorist learning theory, children are believed to gradually assume correct forms of the language of their community when their "bad" speech gets corrected and when their good speech gets positively reinforced.
Researchers have found that correction is not a key factor in child language development as they were claimed to be. When adults do attempt to correct children s grammatical errors and the correct form is repeated, their efforts seem to have little effect, or simply doom to failure because children often do not know what the problem is and continue to use a personally constructed form. Children Reinforcement has been found to occur usually in children' s pronunciation or reporting of the truthfulness of utterances, rather than in the grammaticality of sentences.
21、第一语言习得经过哪些主要阶段？
(1) The prelinguistic stage: at this babbling stage, the sounds and syllables that children utter are as yet meaningless. (2) The one-word stage: at this stage, children learn that sounds related to meanings. They use one-word utterances, or holophrastic sentences to express a concept or predication that would be associated with an entire sentence in adult speech. () The two-word stage: at this stage, children are heard uttering two-word expressions in a variety of combinations. (4) The multiword stage: at this stage, the salient feature of the utterances is the variation in strings of lexical morphemes. It is normally assumed that, by the age of five, with an operating vocabulary of more than 2,000 words, children have completed the greater part of the language acquisition process.
22、什么是比较分析法？
Contrastive Analysis was developed in order to identify the areas of learning difficulty. The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language systems, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make. Given this approach, it was hypothesized that L2 errors were predominantly the result of negative transfer, or mother tongue interference and second language learning was believed to be a matter of overcoming the differences between LI and L2 systems.
23、什么叫中继语？
SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner's interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage. This is the language that a learner constructs at a given stage of SLA. Specifically, interlanguage consists of a series of interlocking and approximate linguistic systems in-between and yet distinct from the learner's native and target languages. It represents the learner' s transitional competence moving along a learning continuum stretching from one' s LI competence to the target language competence. As a type of linguistic system in its own right, interlanguage is a product of L2 training, mother tongue interference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and communicative strategies of the learner. If learners were provided sufficient and the right kind of language exposure and opportunities to interact with language input, their interlanguage would develop gradually in the direction of the target language competence.
24、刻意教学对第二语言学习有什么作用？
Although formal instruction hardly affects the natural route of SLA, it does provide opportunities to receive comprehensible input, and enables the classroom learner to perform a wider range of linguistic tasks than the naturalistic learner and thereby accelerates the rate of acquisition. There is considerable evidence to indicate that L2 learners, particularly adult beginners, benefit from the classroom setting, for they are much more likely to obtain the adjusted qualitative input needed for acquisition. In addition, grammar instruction, course materials and the "teacher talk" are all prepared to meet various stages of development, providing the kind of language features that learners are ready to acquire.
Students with more formal instruction are found to have scored higher on proficiency tests than those with less. On the other hand, one should note that formal instruction has a powerful delayed effect.
25、有哪些个人因素影响第二语言的习得？
There are a number of factors relating to the learner that potentially influence the way in which a second language is acquired. (1) The optimum age for second language acquisition occurs during the early years of one’s life before puberty. (2) Motivation is the learner’s overall goal or orientation. Instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional, i.e. to use it as an instrument for the purpose of, for instance, securing a desirable job. Integrative motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social, i.e. to integrate oneself with the second language community. (3) Acculturation is a process of adapting to the culture and value system of the second language community. According to this view, the acquisition of a second language involves and is dependent on the acquisition of the culture of the target language community. It has been hypothesized that successful language learning is more likely when learners succeed in acculturating to the second language society. (4) Learner’s personality also influences the SLA. They are extroverted and introverted learners. It is recognized that extroverted learners are likely to achieve better oral fluency. To sum up, learner factors contribute to the success of SLA. |
发表于 2007-5-21 01:41
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inguistics is generally defined as the scientic study of language 
ld man, daddy, dad, father, male parent. 
sycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend. 
